Theme (Byzantine district)
"Themata" redirects here. For the album, see
Themata (album).
Map showing the extent of the Byzantine Empire in c. 600 and c. 900, including the themes for the latter date
The
themes or
thémata (
Greek: θέματα,
thémata, singular: θέμα,
théma) were the main military/
administrative divisions of the middle
Byzantine Empire. They were established in the mid-7th century in the aftermath of the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and
Muslim conquests of parts of Byzantine territory, and replaced the earlier
provincial system established by
Diocletian and
Constantine the Great. In their origin, the first themes were created from the areas of encampment of the field armies of the
East Roman army, and their names corresponded to the military units that had existed in those areas. The theme system reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th centuries, as older themes were split up and the conquest of territory resulted in the creation of new ones. The original theme system underwent significant changes in the 11th and 12th centuries, but the term remained in use as a provincial and financial circumscription until the very end of the Empire.
Background
During the late 6th and early 7th centuries, the
Byzantine Empire was under frequent attack from all sides. The
Sassanid Empire was pressing from the east on
Syria,
Egypt, and
Anatolia.
Slavs and
Avars raided Thrace, Macedonia, Illyricum and Greece and settled in the
Balkans. The
Lombards occupied northern
Italy, largely unopposed. In order to face the mounting pressure, in the more distant provinces of the West, recently regained by
Justinian I (r. 527–565), Emperor
Maurice (r. 582–602) combined supreme civil and military authority in the person of an
exarch, forming the exarchates of
Ravenna and
Africa.
[1] These developments overturned the strict division of civil and military offices, which had been one of the cornerstones of the reforms of
Diocletian (r. 284–305). In essence however they merely recognized and formalized the greater prominence of the local general, or
magister militum, over the respective civilian
praetorian prefect as a result of the provinces' precarious security situation.
[2]
This trend had already featured in some of the administrative reforms of Justinian I in the 530s. Justinian had given military authority to the governors of individual provinces plagued by brigandage in
Asia Minor, but more importantly, he had also created the exceptional combined military-civilian circumscription of the
quaestura exercitus and abolished the civilian
Diocese of Egypt, putting a
dux with combined authority at the head of each of its old provinces.
[3] However, in most of the Empire, the old system continued to function until the 640s, when the eastern part of the Empire faced the
onslaught of the Muslim
Caliphate. The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and consequent Byzantine losses in manpower and territory meant that the Empire found itself struggling for survival.
In order to respond to this unprecedented crisis, the Empire was drastically reorganized. The remaining imperial territory in
Asia Minor was divided into four large themes, and although some elements of the earlier civil administration survived, they were subordinated to the governing general or
stratēgos.
[4]
Origins
The origin and early nature of the themes has been heavily disputed amongst scholars. The very name
théma is of uncertain etymology, but most scholars follow
Constantine Porphyrogennetos, who records that it originates from Greek
thesis ("placement").
[5][6] The date of their creation is also uncertain. For most of the 20th century, the establishment of the themes was attributed to the Emperor
Heraclius (r. 610–641), during the
last of the
Byzantine–Sassanid Wars.
[7] Most notable amongst the supporters of this thesis was
George Ostrogorsky who based this opinion on an extract from the chronicle of
Theophanes the Confessor mentioning the arrival of Heraclius "in the lands of the themes" for the year 622. According to Ostrogorsky, this "shows that the process of establishing troops (themes) in specific areas of Asia Minor has already begun at this time."
[8] This view has been objected to by other historians however, and more recent scholarship dates their creation later, to the period from the 640s to the 660s, under
Constans II (r. 641–668).
[9] It has further been shown that, contrary to Ostrogorsky's conception of the
thémata being established from the outset as distinct, well-defined regions where a
stratēgos held joint military and civil authority, the term
théma originally seems to have referred exclusively to the armies themselves, and only in the later 7th or early 8th centuries did it come to be transferred to the districts where these armies were encamped as well.
[10]
Tied to the question of chronology is also the issue of a corresponding social and military transformation. The traditional view, championed by Ostrogorsky, holds that the establishment of the themes also meant the creation of a new type of army. In his view, instead of the old force, heavily reliant on foreign mercenaries, the new Byzantine army was based on native farmer-soldiers living on state-leased military estates (compare the organization of the Sasanian
aswārān).
[5][11] More recent scholars however have posited that the formation of the themes did not constitute a radical break with the past, but rather a logical extension of pre-existing, 6th-century trends, and that its direct social impact was minimal.
[5]
First themes: 640s–770s
Ruins at
Sergiopolis
Byzantine
themata in
Anatolia, c. 750.
The Byzantine themata in Asia Minor as they existed in c. 780, following the creation of the Bucellarian and
Optimatoi themes out of the original theme of the
Opsikion.
What is clear is that at some point in the mid-7th century, probably in the late 630s and 640s, the Empire's field armies were withdrawn to Anatolia, the last major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, and assigned to the districts that became known as the themes. Territorially, each of the new themes encompassed several of the older provinces, and with a few exceptions, seems to have followed the old provincial boundaries.
[12] The first four themes were those of the Armeniacs, Anatolics and Thracesians, and the Opsician theme. The
Armeniac Theme (Θέμα Άρμενιάκων,
Théma Armeniakōn), first mentioned in 667, was the successor of the Army of Armenia. It occupied the old areas of the
Pontus,
Armenia Minor and northern
Cappadocia, with its capital at
Amasea.
[13][14] The
Anatolic Theme (Θέμα Άνατολικῶν,
Anatolikōn), first mentioned in 669, was the successor of the Army of the
East (Aνατολῆ,
Anatolí). It covered southern central Asia Minor, and its capital was
Amorium.
[15][16] Together, these two themes formed the first tier of defence of Byzantine Anatolia, bordering Muslim Armenia and Syria respectively. The
Thracesian Theme (Θέμα Θρᾳκησίων,
Théma Thrakēsiōn), first mentioned clearly as late as c. 740, was the successor of the Army of
Thrace, and covered the central western coast of Asia Minor (
Ionia,
Lydia and
Caria), with its capital most likely at
Chonae.
[17] The
Opsician Theme (Θέμα Ὀψικίου,
Théma Opsikiou), first mentioned in 680, was constituted from the imperial retinue (in
Latin Obsequium). It covered northwestern Asia Minor (
Bithynia,
Paphlagonia and parts of
Galatia), and was based at
Nicaea. Uniquely, its commander retained his title of
kómēs (κόμης, "count").
[18]
In addition, the great naval division of the Carabisians or
Karabisianoi (Kαραβισιάνοι, "people of the κᾱ́ρᾰβοι [ships]"), first mentioned in 680, was probably formed of the remains of the Army of the
Illyricum or, more likely, the old
quaestura exercitus. It never formed a theme proper, but occupied parts of the southern coast of Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands, with its
stratēgos seat most likely at
Samos. It provided the bulk of the
Byzantine navy facing the new Arab fleets, which after the
Battle of the Masts contested control of the Mediterranean with the Empire.
[19] In the event, the Carabisians would prove unsatisfactory in that role, and by 720 they had been disbanded in favour of a fully fledged naval theme, that of the
Cibyrrhaeots (Θέμα Κιβυρραιωτῶν,
Thema Kibyrrhaiotōn), which encompassed the southern coasts of Asia Minor and the
Aegean islands.
[20][21]
The part of the region of
Thrace under Byzantine control was probably constituted as a theme at about 680, as a response to the
Bulgar threat, although for a time the command over Thrace appears to have been exercised by the Count of the
Opsikion.
[22][23][24] Successive campaigns by the emperors of the
Heraclian dynasty in Greece also led to the recovery of control of
Central Greece from
Slavic invaders, and to the establishment of the theme of
Hellas there between 687 and 695.
[25] Sicily too was formed as a theme by the end of the 7th century, but the imperial possessions in mainland
Italy remained under the exarch of Ravenna or the local
doukes, as did Byzantine Africa until the fall of
Carthage in 698. At the same time,
Crete and the imperial exclave of
Cherson in the
Crimea formed independent
archontiai.
[23][26]
Thus, by the turning of the century, the themes had become the dominant feature of imperial administration. Their large size and power however made their generals prone to revolt, as had been evidenced in the turbulent period 695–715, and would again during the great revolt of
Artabasdos in 741–742.
[27] The suppression of Artabasdos' revolt heralded the first significant changes in the Anatolian themes: the over-mighty
Opsikion was broken up with the creation of two new themes, the
Bucellarian Theme and the
Optimates, while the role of imperial guard was assumed by a new type of professional force, the imperial
tagmata.
[28]
Height of the theme system, 780s–950s
![[icon]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png "[icon]") | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008) |
Byzantine
themata in Anatolia, c. 950.
Despite the prominence of the themes, it was some time before they became the basic unit of the imperial administrative system. Although they had become associated with specific regions by the early 8th century, it took until the end of the 8th century for the civil fiscal administration to begin being organized around them, instead of following the old provincial system.
[29] This process, resulting in unified control over both military and civil affairs of each theme by its
strategos, was complete by the mid-9th century,
[30] and is the "classical" thematic model mentioned in such works as the
Klētorologion and the
De Administrando Imperio.
At the same time, the need to protect the Anatolian heartland of Byzantium from the Arab raids led to the creation, in the later 8th and early 9th centuries, of a series of small frontier districts, the
kleisourai or
kleisourarchiai ("defiles, enclosures"). The term was previously used to signify strategically important, fortified mountain passages, and was now expanded to entire districts which formed separate commands under a
kleisourarchēs, tasked with guerrilla warfare and locally countering small to mid-scale incursions and raids. Gradually, most of these were elevated to full themes.
[31][32]
Decline of the system, 960s–1070s
With the beginning of the Byzantine offensives in the East and the Balkans in the 10th century, especially under the warrior-emperors
Nikephoros II (r. 963–969),
John I Tzimiskes (r. 969–976) and
Basil II (r. 976–1025), newly gained territories were also incorporated into themes, although these were generally smaller than the original themes established in the 7th and 8th centuries.
[33]
The
themata of the Byzantine Empire, at the death of Basil II in 1025.
At this time, a new class of themes, the so-called "minor" (μικρὰ θέματα) or "Armenian" themes (ἀρμενικὰ θέματα) appear, which Byzantine sources clearly differentiate from the traditional "great" or "Roman" themes (ῥωμαϊκά θέματα). Most consisted merely of a fortress and its surrounding territory, with a junior
stratēgos (called
zirwar by the Arabs and
zoravar by the Armenians) as a commander and about 1,000 men, chiefly infantry, as their garrison. As their name reveals, they were mostly populated by
Armenians, either indigenous or settled there by the Byzantine authorities. One of their peculiarities was the extremely large number of officers (the theme of
Charpezikion alone counted 22 senior and 47 junior
tourmarchai).
[30][34][35]
While well suited for defence, the "Armenian" themes were incapable of responding to major invasions or undertake sustained offensive campaigns on their own. Thus, from the 960s, more and more professional regiments, both from the old
tagmata and newly raised formations, were stationed along the border. To command them as well as coordinate the forces of the small frontier themes, a number of large regional commands ("ducates" or "catepanates"), under a
doux or
katepano, were set up. In the East, the three original such commands, set up by John Tzimiskes, were those of the
doukes of
Antioch,
Chaldia and
Mesopotamia. As Byzantium expanded into
Greater Armenia in the early 11th century, these were complemented or replaced by the commands of
Iberia,
Vaspurakan,
Edessa and
Ani.
[36][37] In the same vein, the "Armenian" themes seem to have been placed under a single
strategos in the mid-11th century.
[35]
The series of soldier-emperors culminating in Basil II led to a situation where by 1025 Byzantium was more powerful than any of its enemies. At the same time, the mobile, professional forces of the
tagmata gained in importance over the old thematic armies (and fleets) of the interior, which soon began to be neglected. Indeed, from the early 11th century military service was increasingly commuted to cash payments. While the frontier ducates were able to meet most local threats, the dissolution of the old theme-based defensive system deprived the Byzantine defensive system of any strategic depth. Coupled with increasing reliance on foreign mercenaries and the forces of allied and vassal states, as well as the revolts and civil wars resulting from the widening rift between the civilian bureaucracy in Constantinople and the land-holding military elites (the
dynatoi), by the time of the
Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Byzantine army was already undergoing a severe crisis and collapsed completely in the battle's aftermath.
[38]
Change and decline: 11th–12th centuries
Map of Theme Sirmium within Byzantine Empire in 1045.
| This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2012) |
The Komnenian era saw a brief restoration of the empire's fortunes as the force now known as the 'Komnenian army' was established by
Alexios I Komnenos, marking a decisive break with the theme system. The new force was highly centralised in the person of the emperor and the ruling dynasty, and provided an element of stability which characterised the
Komnenian restoration. It was noticeably more heavily reliant on mercenaries such as the
Varangian guard than the previous army. The
strategoi increasingly lost power and the themes lost much of their military character. The independence they had previously enjoyed as a means to deal with local issues was being steadily lost.
The Byzantine army of the Komnenian era, however, never managed to field the manpower of the themes in their heyday, and the new system proved more expensive to maintain in the long run. It also relied on a succession of strong soldier-emperors to be effective. With the death of
Manuel I Komnenos in 1180, a new period of decline set in.
Late Byzantine themata
| This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2012) |
The neglect under the
Angeloi dynasty and the weakening of central authority made the themes increasingly irrelevant in the late 12th century. Regional civil authorities such as the 'despotates' grew in power as central authority collapsed, rendering the themes moribund by the onset of the
Palaiologos dynasty's rule.
Organization
The term
thema was ambiguous, referring both to a form of military tenure and to an administrative division. A theme was an arrangement of plots of land given for farming to the soldiers. The soldiers were still technically a military unit, under the command of a
strategos, and they did not own the land they worked as it was still controlled by the state. Therefore, for its use the soldiers' pay was reduced. By accepting this proposition, the participants agreed that their descendants would also serve in the military and work in a theme, thus simultaneously reducing the need for unpopular
conscription as well as cheaply maintaining the military. It also allowed for the settling of conquered lands, as there was always a substantial addition made to public lands during a conquest.
The commander of a theme, however, did not only command his soldiers. He united the civil and military jurisdictions in the territorial area in question. Thus the division set up by
Diocletian between civil governors (
praesides etc.) and military commanders (
duces etc.) was abolished, and the Empire returned to a system much more similar to that of the Republic or the Principate, where provincial governors had also commanded the armies in their area.
The following table illustrates the thematic structure as found in the Thracesian Theme, c. 902-936:
List of the themes between c. 660 and 930
This list includes the large "traditional" themes established in the period from the inception of the theme system in c. 660 to the beginning of the great conquests in c. 930 and the creation of the new, smaller themes.
[39]
| Theme (name in Greek) | Date | Established from | Later divisions | Capital | Original territory | Other cities |
|---|
Aegean Sea†
(thema Aigaiou Pelàgous, Θέμα του Αιγαίου Πελάγους) | by 842/843 | Cibyrrhaeots, raised from independent droungariate | | possibly Mytilene or Methymna | Lesbos, Lemnos, Chios, Imbros, Tenedos, Hellespont, Sporades and Cyclades | Methymna, Mytilene, Chios, Alexandria Troas, Abydos, Lampsakos, Cyzicus, Sestos, Callipolis |
Anatolics
(thema Anatolikōn, Θέμα των Ανατολικών) | by 669/670 | Former Field Army of the East/Syria | Cappadocia§ (830) | Amorium | Phrygia, Pisidia, Isauria | Iconium, Polybotos, Philomelion, Akroinon, Synnada, Sozopolis, Thebasa, Antiochia, Derbe, Laranda, Isaura, Pessinus |
Armeniacs
(thema Armeniakōn, Armeniakoi, Θέμα των Αρμενιακών) | by 667/668 | Former Field Army of Armenia | Chaldia (by 842), Charsianon§ (863), Koloneia (863), Paphlagonia (by 826) | Amasea | Pontus, Armenia Minor, northern Cappadocia | Sinope, Amisus, Euchaita, Comana Pontica |
Bucellarians
(thema Boukellarion, Boukellàrioi, Θέμα των Βουκελλαρίων) | by 767/768 | Opsikion | Paphlagonia (in part), Cappadocia (in part), Charsianon (in part) | Ancyra | Galatia, Paphlagonia | Tios, Heraclea Pontica, Claudiopolis, Cratea, Iuliopolis, Lagania, Gordion |
Cappadocia§
(thema Kappadokias, Θέμα Καππαδοκίας) | by 830 | Armeniacs, part of the Bucellarians | | Koron Fortress, later Tyana | SW Cappadocia | Podandus, Nyssa, Loulon Fortress, Tyana, Nazianzus, Heraclea Cybistra |
Cephallenia†
(thema Kephallēnias, Θέμα Κεφαλληνίας) | by 809 | | Langobardia (by 910), ?Nicopolis (by 899) | Cephallenia | Ionian Islands, Apulia | Corfu, Zakynthos, Leucate |
Chaldia
(thema Chaldias, Θέμα Χαλδίας) | c. 840 | Armeniacs (originally a tourma) | Duchy of Chaldia | Trebizond | Pontic coast | Rhizus, Cerasous, Polemonion, Paiperta |
Charsianon§
(thema Charsianoù, Θέμα Χαρσιανού) | 863–873 | Armeniacs (originally a tourma), part of the Bucellarians | | Caesarea | NW Cappadocia | Charsianon |
Cherson/Klimata
(thema Chersōnos/Klimata, Θέμα Χερσώνος/τα Κλίματα) | 833 | ruled by the Khazars in the 8th century, Byz. rule rest. by Theophilos | | Cherson | South Crimea | Sougdea, Theodosia, Bosporos, Galita |
Cibyrrhaeots†
(thema Kibyrrhaiotōn, Kibyrrhaiotai, Θέμα των Κυβυρραιωτών) | by 697/698 or c. 720 | Created from the Karabisianoi fleet | Aegean Sea, Samos, Seleucia | Samos, later Attaleia | Pamphylia, Lycia, Dodecanese, Aegean Islands, Ionian coast | Rhodes, Myra, Cibyrrha, Limyra, Phaselis, Side, Selinus, Anemurium, Sagalassus, Telmissus, Patara, Halicarnassus, Iassus, Mylasa, Selge, Cnidus, Kos |
Crete†
(thema Krētēs, Θέμα Κρήτης) | by 767 (?), again in 961 | Arab emirate from c. 828 until Byz. reconquest in 961 | | Chandax | Crete | Rethymnon, Gortys |
Dalmatia
(thema Dalmatias, Θέμα Δαλματίας) | by 899 | New territory | | Idassa/Iadera | | Ragousa, Aspalathos, Polae, Tragyrion, Scardona |
Dyrrhachium
(thema Dyrrhachiou, Θέμα Δυρραχίου) | by 842 | New territory | | Dyrrhachium | Albanian coast | Aulon, Apollonia, Lissos |
Hellas
(thema Hellàdos, Helladikoi, Θέμα της Ελλάδος/Ελλαδικών) | c. 690 | Karabisianoi | Cephallenia (by 809), Peloponnese (by 811) | Corinth, later Thebes (after 809) | Initially E. Peloponnese and Attica, after 809 eastern Central Greece and Thessaly | (after 809) Athens, Larissa, Pharsala, Lamia, Thermopylae, Plataeae, Euripus, Demetrias, Stagoi |
Koloneia§
(thema Kolōneias, Θέμα Κολωνείας) | by 863, probably c. 842 | Armeniacs, kleisoura by early 9th century | Duchy of Chaldia | Koloneia | North Armenia Minor | Satala, Nicopolis, Neocaesarea |
Longobardia
(thema Longobardias, Θέμα Λογγοβαρδίας) | by 892 | Cephallenia (originally a tourma) | | Barion | Apulia | Tarantas, Brindesion, Hydrus, Callipolis |
Lykandos
(thema Lykàndou, Θέμα Λυκάνδου) | by 916 | New territory | | Lykandos Fortress | SE Cappadocia | Arabissos, Cocyssos, Comana |
Macedonia
(thema Makedonias, Θέμα Μακεδονίας) | by 802 | Thrace | Strymon | Adrianopolis | Western Thrace | Didymoteicho, Mosynopolis, Aenos, Maronia |
Mesopotamia
(thema Mesopotamias, Θέμα Μεσοποταμίας) | by 899-911 | New territory | Duchy of Mesopotamia | Kamacha[citation needed] | upper Euphrates | |
Nicopolis
(thema Nikopoleōs, Θέμα Νικοπόλεως) | by 899 | probably raised from tourma of the Peloponnese | | Naupaktos | Epirus, Aetolia, Acarnania | Ioannina, Buthrotum, Rogoi, Dryinoupolis, Nicopolis, Himarra |
Opsikion
(Thema of Opsikion, Θέμα του Οψικίου) | by 680 | Imperial Praesental Armies | Bucellarians (by 768), Optimates (by 775) | Nicaea | | Prussa, Kios, Malagina, Dorylaion, Nakoleia, Krasos, Kotyaion, Midaeum |
Optimates
(thema Optimàtōn, Optimatoi, Θέμα των Οπτιμάτων) | by 775 | Opsicians | | Nicomedia | Bithynia opposite Constantinople | Chalcedon, Chrysopolis |
Paphlagonia
(thema Paphlagonias, Θέμα Παφλαγονίας) | by 826, prob. c. 820 | Armeniacs, Bucellarians (in part) | | Gangra | | Amastris, Ionopolis, Kastamonè, Pompeiopolis |
Peloponnese
(thema Peloponnēsou, Θέμα Πελοποννήσου) | by 811 | Hellas in part, in part new territory | ?Nicopolis (by 899) | Corinth | Peloponnese | Patrae, Argos, Lacedaemon, Korinthos, Helos, Methòne, Elis, Monemvasia |
Phasiane (Derzene)
(thema Phasianēs/Derzēnēs, Θέμα Φασιανής/Δερζένης) | by 935 | New territory and Theme of Mesopotamia | Duchy of Mesopotamia | Arsamosata | source of Aras | |
Samos†
(thema Samou, Θέμα Σάμου) | by 899 | Cibyrrhaeots, raised from independent drungariate of the Gulf | | Smyrna | Southeastern Aegean islands, Ionian coast (shared with Thracesians) | Samos, Ephesos, Miletus, Magnesia, Tralles, Lebedos, Teos, Clazomenae, Phocaea, Pergamon, Adramyttion |
Sebasteia§
(thema Sebasteias, Θέμα Σεβαστείας) | by 911 | Armeniacs, kleisoura by c. 900 | | Sebasteia | | Dazimon |
Seleucia§
(thema Seleukeias, Θέμα Σελευκείας) | by 934 | Cibyrrhaeots, from early 9th century a kleisoura | | Seleucia | | Claudiopolis |
Sicily
(thema Sikelias, Θέμα Σικελίας) | by 700 | | Calabria (remaining territory after Muslim conquest of Sicily) | Syracuse | Sicily and Calabria | Katàne, Tavromènion, Panormos, Akragas, Leontini, Himera, Mazzara, Lilybaeum, Drepanum |
Strymon§
(thema Strymōnos, Θέμα Στρυμώνος) | by 899, probably 840s | Macedonia, raised from kleisoura (709) | | Neapolis | roughly modern Greek Eastern Macedonia | Serres |
Thessalonica
(thema Thessalonikēs, Θέμα Θεσσαλονίκης) | by 824 | | | Thessalonica | roughly modern Greek Central Macedonia | Beroia, Edessa, Dion, Ierissos, Moglena, Diocletianopolis, Servia |
Thrace
(thema Thrakēs, Θέμα Θράκης/Θρακώον) | by 680 | ?Opsicians | Macedonia | Arcadiopolis | Eastern Thrace, except Constantinople | Selymbria, Bizye, Perinthus, Rhaedestus |
Thracesians
(thema Thrakēsiōn, Thrakēsioi, Θέμα Θρακησίων) | by 687 | Former Field Army of Thrace | | Chonae | | Hierapolis, Sardeis, Thyatira, Laodikea |
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